A Brief Guide to Roman Numerals

An overview of Roman numeral notation, structure, and historical usage.

Introduction

Roman numerals form a non-positional numeral system used throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. They rely on combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) to represent values. Although modern usage is largely ceremonial or decorative, understanding their structure is essential for interpreting ancient inscriptions, manuscripts, and epigraphic evidence.

Basic Symbols

The seven fundamental symbols are:

  • I = 1
  • V = 5
  • X = 10
  • L = 50
  • C = 100
  • D = 500
  • M = 1000

Below is a simple grid illustrating each symbol and its value. You can replace the placeholder images (roman_I.jpg, etc.) with actual epigraphic examples or manuscript facsimiles.

The symbols I, V, and X in epigraphic form or as found in medieval manuscripts.
The symbols L, C, and D (often found on milestones, coins, or dedication plates).
The symbol M, frequently seen on imperial coins and monumental inscriptions.

Forming Numbers

Roman numerals are formed by combining symbols, writing largest to smallest from left to right. When a smaller value precedes a larger one, it is subtracted. Otherwise, values are added.

Additive Examples

II   = 1 + 1 = 2
VIII = 5 + 3 = 8
XII  = 10 + 2 = 12